Notes & Quotes (29/12/2016)
Media, Gender and Identity: An Introduction (2nd Edition)
David Gauntlett
MEN AND WOMEN TODAY
· “If there is 'a battle of sexes' who is winning nowadays?” (Page 3)
· “The sexes today are generally thought to be ‘equal’, to the extent that the cover of Time Magazine wondered if feminism was ‘dead’ in June 1998”. (Page 3)
· “A noisy minority argue that feminism has ‘gone too far’ and that it is now men who have the worst deal in society” (Farrell, 2001; Nathanson and Young, 2001, 2006; Hise, 2004; Ellis, 2005). (Page 3)
LAURA MULVEY AND THE ‘MALE GAZE’
· “Male viewers identify with the (male) protagonist, and the female characters are the subject of their desiring gaze.” (Page 41)
· “Female viewers, Mulvey says are also compelled to take the viewpoint of the central (male) character, so that woman are denied a viewpoint of their own and instead participate in the pleasure of men looking at woman. (‘Men look at women; women watch themselves being looked at’, as John Berger had put it (1972: 47).) (Page 41)
· “The female character has no importance in a film Mulvey says, except as a spectacle” (Page 41)
· “Heroes that drive the story are always male, whilst female characters are passive erotic objects” (Page 42)
· “… value in the idea that women come to learn to view themselves and other women through the ‘male gaze’ given the dominance of male produced media, but to deny the female gaze altogether does little service to women”. (Page 42)
WOMAN AND MEN IN MOVIES
· “In the 1950’s the most popular films included High Noon (1952) and Rear Window (1954)… focused on male heroes… these men typically made the decisions which led the story… assertive, confident and dominant” (Page 50)
· “Woman had important roles… far more likely than men to be shown as frightened, in need of protection and direction and offering love and support to the male lead characters” (Page 50)
· “In 1960’s… all women characters cast as inept or were always housewives” (Page 50)
· “ Often the female characters function only to serve the male lead”
· “… or are gender stereotyped as the dumb/ unintelligent character or just there for their looks”.
· Polled over 1000 young women aged 16-30; over half agreed that women are not accurately represented in TV & Film. A further 37% also believe women are not even shown in a positive light.
· Poor representation of women could even be specific to genre. 42% stated that horror films tend to portray women the worst, with romantic comedies not far behind on 36%.
· “… pressure on young girls today to look a certain way, be a certain weight and copy the perfection they see on the cover of magazines and online.”
· 68% of women polled agreed that women in TV & Film do not promote a realistic body image and 59% believe that for women in Film & TV looks are the most important thing.
· “Storylines should have a heroine (as opposed to a hero) and shouldn’t involve a romantic relationship”.
MEDIA MAGAZINE 34 à THE CHANGE ISSUE: ENGENDERING CHANGE
· “Men active: woman passive” – John Berger à (Page 65)
· “In a world ordered by sexual imbalance, pleasure in looking has been split between active/male and passive/female”. – Laura Mulvey à (1985:306) (Page 65)
· “a generation of women who wanted to rebel against male dominance” The Female Eunuch (1969)à (Page 65)
· “The first appearance of a ‘girl’, in Dr No (UK, 1962), when Ursula Andress emerged from the ocean in a bikini, emphasised that these women were sex objects”. (Page 66)
· “… names were sometimes sexual puns – for example, ‘Pussy Galore’ and ‘Honey Ryder’. “ (Page 66)
· “Representation of women across all media tends to focus on the beauty, size/physique, sexuality, emotional (as opposed to intellectual) dealings and relationships”
· Laura Mulvey quoted as saying “Narrative fiction film created images of women used for the gratification of men”.
· “These empowered, confident, sexy female characters could be seen as aspirational figures”
· “Women are in need of strong role models and perhaps this surge of action movie heroines could be the answer?”
MEDIA MAGAZINE 32 à THE HUMOUR ISSUE: IS NESSA BAD FOR OUR HEALTH
· “...Characters body weight was linked to narrative lines – fat people less likely to be shown having romantic relationships and their plot lines generally had a negative narrative outcome” (Page 22)
· “ bad things happen to fat people and good things happen to thin people” (Page 22)
· “ One believes that representations are constructed in order to fit with mainstream hegemonic values” (Page 22)
· “Identity is complicated, everyone’s got one” – David Gauntlett
· “Influential women in public life continue to be sources of inspiration, but how much does the media challenge hegemonic constructs of femininity”.
· “Practice stubborn sexism and misogyny that fails to recognise or hold up any mirror on society, choosing instead to reinforce prejudice and maintain unequal gender divisions”
· “Reinforcing and celebrating sexism”
· “ ..Analysing the dominant discourse of Hollywood cinema, concentrating primarily on the notions of images of women as spectacle and as fetishized object”.
http://www.ejumpcut.org/archive/jc54.2012/RothlisbergerBabel/text.html - Leisa Rothlisberger
· …”women are victimized in association with their national labels”.
· In 2013, women comprised less than a third of speaking parts in the top grossing domestic films and only 15% of protagonists.
· “ A growing disconnect… between what we might perceive as being the current status of women in film and their actual status” – Dr Martha Lauzen (Executive Director of The Center for the Study of Women in Television and Film at San Diego State University)
· “Truth…latest films… female characters are two times more likely than males to be identified only by a life related role rather than work related role… rarely portrayed as formal leaders” (Lauzen, 2015)
· “Recent popularity of female heroines like Katniss Everdeen in the Hunger Games series and Tris in the Divergent series may lend to the impression that women are represented equally and fairly”
· “I feel like with young women, their bodies are constantly objectified and used in a sexual context.”
· “ With older women [their bodies are] constantly the butt of a joke… seminal scene that illustrates that is in About Schmidt, when Kathy Bates gets into the hot tub and Jack Nicholson is horrified and the audience is supposed to scream. … deeply offended by that scene”
[Melissa Block (2012) Sarah Polley: On Love, Desire and The Female Body. NPR]
· In the top 100 grossing films of 2008 young women were sexualised more often than men. 39.8% of women were wearing sexually revealing attire compared to 6.7% of men.
· 30.1% of women were shown partially naked compared to 10.3% of men.
[Stacy L. Smith and Marc Choueiti: Gender inequality in cinematic content? A look at females on screen and behind the camera]
· 2007 -2012: 28.8% of women wore sexually revealing clothes as a opposed to 7% of men
· “Women are shown on screen, they’re often portrayed in a hyper sexualized way”
· “31.6% of females were shown wearing stereotypically “sexy” clothing”
Feminist Media Studies -Liesbet van Zoonen
Spectatorship and the Gaze
· “…display of woman as spectacle to be looked at, subjected to the gaze of the (male) audience.” (Page 88)
· “Pornography is the most obvious genre built on the exhibition of women’s bodies as objects of desire, fantasy and violence” (Page 88)
· “The incorporation of women’s bodies as decorative ingredients in advertisements of drinks, tools and - most notoriously – cars in common practice” (Page 88)
· “… In TV game shows the assistant to the quiz master is the predictably attractive, scantily dresses blonde” (Page 88)
· “Hollywood cinema has a long standing tradition of constructing women as a spectacle for voyeuristic pleasure” (Page 88)
· “ This common feature of popular and high culture alike – for in ‘art’ women’s bodies have been exploited in similar ways - suggests that in western society to be looked at is the fate of women , while the act of looking is reserved to men.” (Page 88)
Men looking at women
· ‘Scopophilia’ is defined as a basic human sexual drive to look at other human beings, a conscious and concentrated way of looking that causes particular feelings of lust and satisfaction that are not directly related to erotogenic[1] zones’ (Page 88)
· “In mainstream Hollywood film, women function simultaneously as erotic objects for the male audience who can derive scopophilic pleasure from their presence, and as erotic objects for the male protagonists with whom the male audience can identify” (Page 89)
· “Cinema undermines women’s intelligence... they don’t see us as a powerful economic force, which is incredible ignorance” – Salma Hayek (Mexican – American actress)
· “We must commit to equalizing the playing field for women in Hollywood” – Jennifer Siebel Newsom (Director of documentary Miss Representation)
Gender Trouble - Judith Butler
· “I read Beauvoir who explained that to be a woman within the terms of a masculinist culture is to be the source of mystery and unknowability for men” (Preface 1990) {Page 29}
· “For the masculine subject of desire, trouble became a scandal with the sudden intrusion, the unanticipated agency, of a female ‘object’ who inexplicably returns the glance, reverses the gaze and contests the place and authority of the masculine position” (Preface 1990) {Page 30}
THE COMPULSORY ORDER OF SEX/GENDER/DESIRE
· “Although, the unproblematic unity of ‘women’ is often invoked to construct a solidarity of identity, a spilt is introduced in the feminist subject by the distinction between sex and gender”.
à “One is not born a woman, but rather becomes one” – Simone de Beauvoir
à “Strictly speaking, ‘women’ cannot be said to exist” - Julia Kristeva
à “Strictly speaking, ‘women’ cannot be said to exist” - Julia Kristeva
è “ Woman does not have a sex” – Luce Irigaray
è “ The deployment of sexuality… established this notion of sex” – Michel Foucault
è “ The category of sex is the political category that founds society as heterosexual” – Monique Wittig
· “Read it and weep: The gender ratio of men to women in film is 3.4 men to 1 woman”
· “For every female character that appears in a movie there are at least three male characters in the same movie... Upsetting right?”
· “It’s hard to find a female character that doesn’t fit into some type of degrading feminine stereotype”
· “It’s time to cut the crap, Hollywood. We want female movie leads that are clever, strong, independent and real... here are nine female movie stereotypes that should be nixed immediately”.
· “The cold heartless boss, Miranda Priestly in The Devil Wears Prada she’s callous, detached, and the main antagonist... However, this can’t be the stereotype for all women in positions of power.” “Instead we should portray female bosses as motivated or brilliant, which most are in real life”
· “The damsel in distress, a broken woman with a troubled past and/or dark secret is completely lost until she is often saved by an often shirtless male. The problem with this stereotype is that it perpetuates the idea that women need to be saved”
· “Woman are completely capable of solving their own problems without the help of a hunky man”
· “The sleazy journalist, most movies portraying female journalists doesn’t do the career justice; these characters will always have some sort of relationship with their male sources. Sometimes it’s a flirtation, but other times it’s a sex-for-secrets trade-off. Trainwreck, Amy Schumer’s journalist character has sex with the subject of her story after knowing him for less than 48 hours”
· “The workaholic, she’s an intelligent, ambitious, and driven working woman, she’s landed her dream job doing something she loves and so she spends most of her time at the office. When she finally falls for Mr. Right, her job interferes with the relationship, and she’s forced to make a decision. Referencing The Devil Wears Prada once again, Anne Hathaway’s character is the workaholic. After her career takes off, her relationship with her boyfriend suffers. Why is it so unimaginable that a woman can be as dedicated to her career as her significant other?”
· The Transformation Girl, The female character starts off wide-eyed and innocent, but as soon as she meets her Prince Charming, she completely changes her appearance, personality, and values in order to become the version of herself she believes her man will want. (Sandy – Grease) This can have detrimental implications for younger viewers, for the overall theme of these movies is “don’t be yourself if you want someone to fall in love with you.” A better option would be to have a female character that stays true to herself and still gets the guy.
· The dead mother, the mothers that do appear in Disney princess movies are usually the villain trying to covet the youth and beauty of our young heroines.
· The forever single all-knowing best friend, while the main heroine of the movie navigates through her own dark and twisted romantic adventures, her best friend is always on the side-line giving out life-changing advice.
· The high school bitch, this stereotype is the most farfetched… newsflash; pretty, popular girl isn’t always a soulless demon (Mean Girls & A Cinderella Story). High school can actually be a positive experience.
· The desperate city girl, (He’s Just Not That Into You) This female stereotype is desperate for a date, although casual dating never seems to work out for her.
· “... difficulties she faces as a woman in Hollywood and the lack of non stereotyped roles she is offered” - Michelle Rodriguez
· “I have such a strong sense of self, there are certain lines I just won’t cross,” she said. “I’m really picky about the parts I choose. I can’t be the slut. I cannot be just the girlfriend. I can’t be the girl who gets empowered because she’s been raped. I can’t be the girl who gets empowered and then dies”
· “... going to have to create your own archetype, doesn’t matter if you go broke doing it”
· “... Michelle is not malleable, you’re not going to influence her by shining fame and money at her”
· “I’ve stuck to guns and I’m proud... also carried a movie since Girlfight”
· “...lack of female voices in Hollywood”
· “... Million Dollar Baby – why’s she got to die at the end, man? Would you do that to a male character?”
· “... 80% of the writers out there are men”
· “... it’s our fault as women for not penetrating that market”
· “ it’s disappointing to see film makers turning what is a life saving medical procedure for transgender people into a SENSATIONSLISTIC plot device”
· “... films announcement comes at a time when Hollywood is coming under increasing pressure to clean up its negative portrayals of LGBT people.”
· “ Glaad accused studios of falling behind trailblazing television shows such as Orange is the New Black... when it comes to fair and relevant representation”
Ben Beaumont – Thomas
· “ The Far from the Madding Crowd actor argues there is a still ‘ a lack of great stories for women’”
· “the film industry is still hugely unequal”- Carey Mulligan
· “In terms of the amount of interesting roles there are for women it’s obviously massively sexist”
· “There’s a lack of material for women.”
Ink Stained Amazons & Cinematic Warriors - Superwomen in modern mythology
Modern Myth, Meet Feminism
· [After watching Cathy Gale in The Avengers] women were leaving their homes, their kitchens and their crèches in droves and going out and starting to throw men over their shoulders” (Page 29) à Patrick Macnee
· “Mrs June Cleaver… the sweet and patient homemaker of TV’s ‘leave it to Beaver’ late 1950’s series… revolved around stereotypical suburban nuclear family – continues to serve as American symbol of… cultural ideas about roles of women (Page 29)
· “...wives usually deferred to their husband’s judgement” (Page 30)
· “ ... the life of a suburban housewife like the aforementioned Mrs Cleaver was the only proper lifestyle choice for women, and that in fact, it was something to aspire to” (Page 30)
· “...painful contortions of a women’s daily life might, in fact be heroic” (Page 30) – Susan J Douglas à Where the girls are; Growing up female with the mass media
The Birth of Modern Mythology and the Mother of Female Superhero’s
Post Second World War and the 1950’s
· “It’s hard to decide which stereotype is more offensive, the housewife or the woman whose curiosity is a plague” (Page 28)
Feminism & Popular Culture
è Investigating the post feminist mystique
Introduction: Wonder Women “All the world is waiting for you”
The Post Feminist Mystique
· “... the highest value and the only commitment for women is the fulfilment of their own femininity”. (Friedan) {Page 9}
‘Post Feminism’ or ‘ghost feminism’
· “Feminism’s perceived ghoulishness” (Page 18)
The return of the repressed
Feminism, fear and the post-feminist gothic
· “As an attempt to draw attention to issues and injustices which might otherwise pass unheeded, feminism – like the Gothic – has repeatedly turned its attentions to what goes on behind closed doors, in women’s private lives” (Page 135)
· “… seeking to intervene in the legislation of women’s choices and experiences, feminism necessarily trespasses on the dark ‘Gothic’ territories of power, sex and violence, demonstrating the mutual investment of the two discourses in narratives of female victimization, sexual violation and domestic abuse”. (Page 135)
Academic Journal: Film Quarterly
Demystifying the female body à two interviews
Anne Severson – Near the big Chakra
Yvonne Rainer – Privilege
· “Reflect the determination of many filmmakers to work for healthier cinematic representations and responses to the female body... for an understanding and a relation to the body as an organism, an evolving process, rather than as a conventially erotic, static icon” (Page 18)
· “minorities in Hollywood” should “stop stealing all the white people’s superheroes” and “make up [their] own”
GENDER BIAS WITHOUT BOARDERS
è AN INVESTIGATION OF FEMALE CHARACTERS IN POPULAR FILMS ACROSS 11 COUNTRIES
Dr Stacy L. Smith, Marc Choueiti, & Dr Katherine Pieper
Assistance from: Yu – Ting Liu & Christine Song
Sexualisation
· “The objectification of individuals is a growing concern worldwide”
· “… attention focused on girls and women and the degree to which the media shows them in a sexy and potentially demeaning light”.
· “Research reveals that exposure to sexualize and thin content can contribute to or reinforce body shame, appearance anxiety, or internalization of the thin ideal among some females.”[2]
· “…We measured four key attributes: sexually revealing clothing (i.e., tight, alluring, revealing apparel), nudity (i.e., part or full exposure from mid chest to high upper thigh region), thinness (i.e., minimal amount of body fat and/or muscle), and attractiveness (i.e., verbal/nonverbal utterances that communicate the physical desirousness of another character).”
· “Each of these sexualisation indicators varied by gender.[3] Females were over two times as likely as males to be shown in sexually revealing attire (24.8% vs. 9.4%), thin (38.5% vs. 15.7%), and partially or fully naked (24.2% vs. 11.5%). Appearance comments were directed at females (13.1%) five times as frequently as males (2.6%). Given these pronounced differences, we looked at female and male sexualisation separately across these four indicators by country.”
Action/Spectacle Cinema: A sight and sound reader
è BFI Sight & Sound Reader
Jose Arroyo
The body beautiful as blur
· “Feminine masculinity is one manifestation of this gender meld. It also identifies star image indelibly with the demands of a role.” (Page 48)
· “The central spectacle of Moore’s body beautiful increasingly blurs the line between the role and the star” (Page 48)
· “ More of Jordan there may be as the film proceeds, but her worked on, worked out, built up body is still Moore’s” (Page 48)
· “It may seem an obvious point, but if Jordan shaves, Demi does too; if Jordan’s pecs swell, so do Demi’s. But is the Moore we see any more real than Jordan?” (Page 48)
· “The body of Demi Moore is a costume, a mask, a masquerade conveying Jordan’s development... Moore also carries through into all those photo calls with Bruce and the kids”. (Page 48)
· “Female self- and body image are inextricably inter-twined” (Page 48)
· “Female stars have to fight to control the inevitable link made between the body of the role and their bodily public image?” (Page 48)
· “ Moore’s roles are at least as characterised by the tragic manipulability of femininity as by its real power to control, are symptomatic of the risks she is taking as a star” (Page 49)
· “Jordan’s press-ups also highlight the woman’s body as a weapon” (Page 49)
War on Weakness
· “GI Jane... a solitary woman trying to forge a path for other woman to follow in a sexist institution” (Page 49)
Representation: Second Edition – Stuart Hall, Jessica Evans, Sean Nixon
· “……. two processes, two systems of representation, involved. First, there is the ‘system’ by which all sorts of objects, people and events are correlated with a set of concepts or mental representations which we carry around in our heads. Without them, we could not interpret the world meaningfully at all. ” (Page 3)
Maintaining the Double Standard: Portrayals of Age and Gender in Popular Films – David Dozier & Martha Lauzen
· “There are only three ages for women in Hollywood: babe, district attorney, and driving Miss Daisy” (Schroeder, Swerdlow, & Wilson, 1996). This line sums up the unfortunate alchemy gender and age conjure for women in film.” (Page 437)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c4oiEhf9M04 – Jennifer Lopez
“I Luh Ya Papi”
· “If she was a dude, they would seriously have her up in a mansion with all these half naked girls”
· “Why do men always objectify the women in every single video?”
· “Why can’t we for once objectify the men?”
· “.. could start with her on the bed with a bunch of naked guys for no reason”
· “Meghan Trainor is pleased that more full-bodied women are being recognized in the fashion industry - but wants the term 'plus-size' to be retired once and for all”
· “I've always hated the word plus-size”
· “Meghan says that women who are size 12 and up are 'a huge part of our society’ adding ‘how are you going to criticize us?’ The word ‘plus sized’ should be gone ”
· “The star, who looks gorgeous in a black peplum dress in the campaign, further offers: 'I hate seeing when people blow up about a model because she has a little extra skin.' “
· “...She earned considerably less than her male co-stars in American Hustle, despite her major role in the film and bankable status as a Hollywood A-lister and Oscar winner”
· “When the Sony hack happened and I found out how much less I was being paid than the lucky people with dicks, I didn’t get mad at Sony” she writes “I got mad at myself. I failed as a negotiator because I gave up early. I did not want to keep fighting over millions of dollars that, frankly, due to two franchises, I don’t need”
· “She writes that a need ‘to be liked’ and the fear of seeming ‘difficult’ or ’spoiled ’ kept her from demanding more money”.
· “I don’t think I’m the only woman with this issue … Could there still be a lingering habit of trying to express our opinions in a certain way that doesn’t ‘offend’ or ‘scare’ men?”
· She writes “she has kept mostly quiet until now on the subject of feminism because she tends to veer away from topics that she fears are “trending”
· Forbes recently ranked Lawrence as the highest-paid female actor of 2015. Since the Sony leak, Lawrence made headlines for negotiating a higher salary than Chris Pratt, her co-star in the upcoming blockbuster Passengers. Pratt will earn $12m for the film, while Lawrence will net $20m upfront or 30% of the film’s profits.
HISTORICAL TEXT RESEARCH
THE FAST AND THE FURIOUS
Background
· 2001 à release
· Directed by à Rob Cohen
· Genre à Action, Crime, Thriller
Notable Stars
ü Michelle Rodriguez à Speaks her mind, Passionate about women rights
ü Jordana Brewster à Do what it takes to survive in Hollywood, Doesn’t shy away from big action films
 Similarities |
Differences
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Women in tight figure hugging clothing
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Women get more screen time
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Showing off busts
STILL JUST A LOVE INTEREST OR FEMME FATALE
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Some instances more than just the vulnerable femme fatale
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Men got the important roles à Dom Toretto’s : Head of family
Brian: Copà Authoritative position
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Given more important roles à Take more of a lead in the films
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Ethnic minorities well represented
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Mia goes from being domestic housewife to a more important role within the family car business
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John Berger: Men act and women appear à Men: Racing etc
Women: bikini, femme fatale, pleasure of the male protagonist
EQUALLY
Men (Dom) are displayed for the pleasure of the female eye à Topless
MEN TOO ARE OBJECTIFIED FOR THEIR BODIES AND IMAGE ON SCREEN
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IMPORTANT SCENE CLIPPINGS
ü 4:26 à Zooms out so Mia full body image can be emphasised
SMALL CROP TOP, LOW NECK: EMPHAISE FULL FIGURE
ü 5:39 -5:44 à Letty steps out of car
CAMERA TILTS AND MOVES UP HER BODY (TIGHT FIGURE HUGGING CLOTHES) TO APPRECIATE HER FIGURE FOR THE MALE PLEASURE
ü 20:30 à Woman low neck line
SHOWS OFF HER BUST
ü 41:35 à Typical domestic house wife scene
MIA WASHING THE DISHES
ü 44:23 à Some instance as with Letty before
CAMERA TILTS AND MOVES UP HER BODY (TIGHT FIGURE HUGGING CLOTHES) TO APPRECIATE HER FIGURE FOR THE MALE HETROSEXUAL PLEASURE
QUOTE FROM 7
ü 108:12 à Letty and Ramsey vulnerable
“DID YOU BRING THE CAVERLERY” “WOMEN I AM THE CAVERLERY”
Genre
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Society
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Issue
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Many females are given the more action led roles
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Women are more respected with more screen time and more important roles
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Feminism is still greatly talked about in all ways
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Despite action heavy roles still act as the love interest or femme fatale for the male characters
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Less comments about the role that women have not as frowned upon
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The issue is taken more seriously
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Movies in genre have changed because they are more female centred
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J Law à Spoke up and now most of the time gets more money for films than some of her male counterparts like Chris Pratt.
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THRILLER: Women are still presented as the vulnerable ones that need rescuing
è Letty car accident: first film
è Letty and Ramsey need rescuing from drone which Hobbs does
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surveillance in undergraduates: Results of a 2-year panel study. Journal of Communication, 56(2), 366-386. Harper, B., & Tiggemann, M. (2008). The effect of thin ideal media images on women’s self-objectification, mood, and body image. Sex Roles, 58(9-10), 649-657. Fredrickson, B.L., & Roberts, T.A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173-206. Roberts, T.A., & Gettman, J.Y. (2004). Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification. Sex Roles, 51 (1/2), 17-27. Grabe, S., Ward, L.M., & Hyde, J.S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: a meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), 460- 467.
[3] All four appearance indicators varied with gender: sexually revealing clothing: X2 (1, 5,484)=229.66, p<.01, phi=.21; nudity, X2 (1, 5,487)=145.27, p<.01, phi=.16; thinness, X2 (1, 4,281)=275.16, p<.01, phi=.25; physical beauty, X2 (1, 5,799)=245.98, p<.01, phi=.21. Nudity was collapsed prior to analysis: none vs. some (partial or full nudity). Some nudity featured 803 instances of partial and 45 instances of full nudity. Thinness also was collapsed into two categories: not thin vs. thin. Finally, attractiveness was transformed into a binary: attractive (1 or more references) vs. not attractive (no references).
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